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Question: What rights are protected by copyright law?
Answer: The purpose of copyright law is to encourage creative work by granting a temporary monopoly in an author's original creations. This monopoly takes the form of six rights in areas where the author retains exclusive control. These rights are: (1) the right of reproduction (i.e., copying),
(2) the right to create derivative works,
(3) the right to distribution,
(4) the right to performance,
(5) the right to display, and
(6) the digital transmission performance right. The law of copyright protects the first two rights in both private and public contexts, whereas an author can only restrict the last four rights in the public sphere. Claims of infringement must show that the defendant exercised one of these rights. For example, if I create unauthorized videotape copies of Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan and distribute them to strangers on the street, then I have infringed both the copyright holder's rights of reproduction and distribution. If I merely re-enact The Wrath of Khan for my family in my home, then I have not infringed on the copyright. Names, ideas and facts are not protected by copyright. Trademark law, in contrast, is designed to protect consumers from confusion as to the source of goods (as well as to protect the trademark owner's market). To this end, the law gives the owner of a registered trademark the right to use the mark in commerce without confusion. If someone introduces a trademark into the market that is likely to cause confusion, then the newer mark infringes on the older one. The laws of trademark infringement and dilution protect against this likelihood of confusion. Trademark protects names, images and short phrases. Infringement protects against confusion about the origin of goods. The plaintiff in an infringement suit must show that defendant's use of the mark is likely to cause such a confusion. For instance, if I were an unscrupulous manufacturer, I might attempt to capitalize on the fame of Star Trek by creating a line of 'Spock Activewear.' If consumers could reasonably believe that my activewear was produced or endorsed by the owners of the Spock trademark, then I would be liable for infringement. The law of trademark dilution protects against confusion concerning the character of a registered trademark. Suppose I created a semi-automatic assault rifle and marketed it as 'The Lt. Uhura 5000.' Even if consumers could not reasonably believe that the Star Trek trademark holders produced this firearm, the trademark holders could claim that my use of their mark harmed the family-oriented character of their mark. I would be liable for dilution.
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Question: What kinds of things are copyrightable?
Answer: In order for material to be copyrightable, it must be original and must be in a fixed medium. Only material that originated with the author can support a copyright. Items from the public domain which appear in a work, as well as work borrowed from others, cannot be the subject of an infringement claim. Also, certain stock material might not be copyrightable, such as footage that indicates a location like the standard shots of San Francisco in Star Trek IV: The Voyage Home. Also exempted are stock characters like the noisy punk rocker who gets the Vulcan death grip in Star Trek IV. The requirement that works be in a fixed medium leaves out certain forms of expression, most notably choreography and oral performances such as speeches. For instance, if I perform a Klingon death wail in a local park, my performance is not copyrightable. However, if I film the performance, then the film is copyrightable. Single words and short phrases are generally not protected by copyright, even when the name has been "coined" or newly-created by the mark owner. Logos that include original design elements can be protected under copyright or under trademark. Otherwise, words, phrases and titles may be protected only by trademark, however.
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Question: What is copyright infringement? Are there any defenses?
Answer: Infringement occurs whenever someone who is not the copyright holder (or a licensee of the copyright holder) exercises one of the exclusive rights listed above. The most common defense to an infringement claim is "fair use," a doctrine that allows people to use copyrighted material without permission in certain situations, such as quotations in a book review. To evaluate fair use of copyrighted material, the courts consider four factors:
- the purpose and character of the use
- the nature of the copyrighted work
- the amount and substantiality of copying, and
- the market effect.
(17 U.S.C. 107) The most significant factor in this analysis is the fourth, effect on the market. If a copier's use supplants demand for the original work, then it will be very difficult for him or her to claim fair use. On the other hand, if the use does not compete with the original, for example because it is a parody, criticism, or news report, it is more likely to be permitted as "fair use." Trademarks are generally subject to fair use in two situations: First, advertisers and other speakers are allowed to use a competitor's trademark when referring to that competitor's product ("nominative use"). Second, the law protects "fair comment," for instance, in parody.
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Question: What defenses are there to copyright infringement?
Answer:
The primary defense to copyright infringement is "fair use." 17
U.S.C. ?107. The fair use doctrine allows the reproduction and
use of work, notwithstanding the rightsof the author (17
U.S.C. ?? 106 and 106A),
for limited purposes such as criticism, comment, news reporting, teaching,
scholarship, and research. Fair use may be described as the privilege to
use the copyrighted material in a reasonable manner without the owner's
consent. In deciding whether a copier's actions were fair, judges will consider
1. the purpose and character of the copying (certain types of educational
copying is allowed)
2. the nature of the original (originals made for commercial reasons are
less protected from copying than their purely artistic counterparts)
3. the amount and substantiality of the portion copied (one may not copy
the "heart" of a work without the author's permission); and
4. the effect that such copying may have on the market for the original
(copying may be permitted if it is unlikely to cause economic harm the original
author).
Examples of activities that may be excused as fair use include: distributing
copies of a section of an article in class for educational purposes; providing
a quotation in a book review; and imitating a work for the purpose of parody
or social commentary.
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Question: If I am engaged in research, educational, or academic pursuits, does the fair use doctrine permit me to copy articles from a journal or periodical?
Answer: As mentioned in other FAQ answers in this section, it is hard to predict what a court will do when presented with a fair use defense. However, in this case the answer depends in part on your purposes in copying. If you intend to archive the copies, the answer is probably no, while if you intend to use the copies in classroom instruction (without charging for the copies), the use may be fair. In 1995 the Second Circuit Court of Appeals held that it was not a fair use for research scientists at Texaco to photocopy articles from various scientific and technical journals. Texaco argued, on behalf of its scientists, that the use was for the purpose of research, and therefore was fair under Section 107. But the court was not convinced. In reaching its decision, the court in Texaco ran through the four factor fair use analysis (see In general, what types of uses does the fair use d...? and introduction to this Chilling Effects topic ). The court found that three of the four factors weighed against Texaco, and focused much of its opinion on the fourth factor, deciding that Texaco's use would have a significant impact on the potential market for the journal articles. Thus, in order to make copies of the articles, the research scientists at Texaco had to either pay for them or get express permission from the publishers. Further, use of another's work for classroom instruction purposes may be protected under a separate provision of the Copyright Act. Section 110 of the Copyright Act contains exemptions that provide nonprofit educational institutions the limited right to use copyrighted materials in face-to-face classroom settings. This section provides: "Notwithstanding the provisions of section 106, the following are not infringements of copyright: (1) performance or display of a work by instructors or pupils in the course of face-to-face teaching activities of a nonprofit educational institution, in a classroom or similar place devoted to instruction . . . ." Furthermore, the recently-enacted "Technology, Education, and Copyright Harmonization Act" -- the TEACH Act -- amends Section 110 to exempt certain uses of copyrighted works in the context of distance education (beyond the context of face-to-face teaching). The TEACH Act sets forth in detail the terms and conditions on which nonprofit educational institutions may use copyrighted works in the context of distance education (such as via websites or other digital means) without permission. More information on the TEACH Act.
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Question: What are the possible penalties for copyright infringement?
Answer: Under the Copyright Act, penalties for copyright infringement can include:
- an injunction against further infringement -- such as an order preventing the infringer from future copying or distribution of the copyrighted works
- impounding or destruction of infringing copies
- damages -- either actual damages and the infringer's profits, or statutory damages
- costs and attorney's fees
A copyright owner can only sue for infringement on a work whose copyright was registered with the Copyright Office, and can get statutory damages and attorney's fees only if the copyright registration was filed before infringement or within three months of first publication. (17 U.S.C. 411 and 412)
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